Latin and Its Influence on English Language

Latin is one of the most ancient languages and				dual sources of
even now it is widely used almost in various fields				Middle English vocabulary are still apparent today:
such as: medicine, learning, science, technology,				word pairs such as
etc.				example/exemplary and machine (sh)/machinate
Latin has been influencing English throughout its				(k) show the differences
history. Its				between words with Norman and Latin roots.
authority on English was profound as the Roman				This period is the first
army and merchants gave				time that untranslated Latin words are introduced
new names to local objects such as: pise 'pea',				wholesale, in both
catte 'cat', cetel				prose (Trevisa's translation of De Proprietatibus
'kettle', candel 'candle' and a numerous number of				Rerum) and poetry
other common words.				(Dunbar et al.). As one Latin-English translator
The influence of Latin on Old English was				complained in the
profound because Latin was				early 1400s, 'There is many words in Latin that
considered the language of a highly developed				we have no proper
civilization. For				English accordance therto.'2 Almost all of these
several hundred years, while the Germanic Tribe				aureate terms passed
who became the English				into general use only after being reintroduced.
were still occupying their home land, they had				Others still current
various relations with				were from Wycliffe's Bible, and gained currency
the Romans through which they acquired a				through constant use.The Modern PeriodThe
considerable number of Latin				Modern Period begins with the advent of Modern
words. Not only did Latin influence the vocabulary				English, usually
of the English				dated to 1500.3 By the time of Thomas Eliot, the
language, but its syntactic style had an impact on				classical languages
the English of the				were entering English mostly as compounds,
16th century. Marcus Tullius Cicero work was				either with English or
particularly imitated, as				previously-assimilated words, or with other
there was a search for an oratorical contrast and				classical roots. An
balance.Latin's contribution to modern English has				incomplete list of widely used classical roots
not been more than just				includes -ation, -ana,
derivatives. The concept of grammar also came				-ite, -ism, ex-, co-, -ist, and de-, while scientific
from the artificial				English uses
structure of Classical Latin which can be defined				many more specialized ones : mille-, matri-,
as the Latin used				menti-, and reticul-,
for poetry, oratory, and by the upper classes.				though these often come ultimately from the
Early English had no				Greek.Latin roots are also apparent in commercial
grammar, no rules. Latin provided an example of				names, especially of
excellent grammatical				high-tech companies (Sun Microsystems, from
structure and an oratory contrast that English				the Greek micro, as in the
eventually adopted.Latin has probably impacted				Late Latin microcosms), but also in many from
legal English the most, as it shares with				the early days of this
science a concern for precision. The language				century (Bovril, from the Latin bovis)4. Classically
used in the legal system				derived names
is simple, universal and rhetoric. The word have				seem to give credence to claims to knowledge
made the statements				and capability5.Assimilation of Latin words into
to be phrased in such a way that we can see its				EnglishHaving treated when, how, and why Latin
applicability yet				words are used in English, the
specific enough individual circumstances. The law				next question is "how have these Latin words
has to remain				assimilated into
constant so the language has to be precise				English?" English words like harp, cousin, chime,
enough so cases will be				chesnut, prove, and
treated consistently and fairly. This is the reason				truck certainly don't advertise their Latin roots
why it has adopted				(Late Latin harpa,
such a complex grammatical structure.Words				Latin consobrinus, Latin cymbalum, Latin
from Latin roots have also entered Modern English				castanea, Latin probus, and
through the				the Latin trochaicus, respectively)11. Yet, linguists
modern Romance languages, especially French				and etymologists
and Italian.				can somehow trace the history and forms of
English-speakers assimilate a variety of foreign				English words, and
words. They dropped				recognize patterns in the changes they
endings without much thought. As a result, we				undergo.Other patterns have been recognized
now retain foreign				that not only reveal an English
characters like the French c, and the German				word's source, but can also help date its adoption.
B.The English language has drawn from Latin				The two most
mainly in its vocabulary,				important of these were palatal diphthongization,
but also in its grammar. These loans are grouped,				in which some vowels
by time and				preceded by palatal consonants were changed to
substance, into four periods -- the Zero, First,				diphthongs, and the
Second, Third, and				i-umlaut (or i-mutation), in which the value of
Modern. Each of these has distinctive				some accented vowels
characteristics, both of the				was changed. The other prominent area of
Latin words adopted and the process of				change in adopted words was
assimilation undergone. Latin				in their accenting, which sometimes led to more
words have also been adopted to English through				vowel mutations. These
Modern French and				changes all took place in English, so their presence
Modern Italian (grouped under the Modern Period)				can tell us only
and Norman French				by when a word must have been adopted; other
(the Third Period).The Zero PeriodIt includes all				changes can tell us
English words whose etymology traces back				before what time a word must have been used
to Germanic tribes in contact with Romans on				in English. The most
the continent. These are				important of these was in the Latin itself, and is
all short words, easily adaptable to the inflections				the change that
of early Germanic				took place when a word was simplified by
languages. The tribes' dealings with the Romans				speakers of Vulgar Latin13.
were centered in				Others were changes in the forms adopted by
military matters, cooking, trade, and commerce,				other Germanic languages,
especially with wine				but these are often only speculation.The other
merchants. Words current in Modern English with				major change words underwent after adoption
recognizable forms				was
include camp (L campus), kettle (OE cytel, L				simplification, either dropping a case ending (Latin
catillus, catinus), cheap				cornu -- English
(OE ceap), and wine (OE win, L vinum).The First				horn14) or dropping syllables. Syllables were
PeriodThis period includes words borrowed during				especially likely to be
Julius Caesar's English				lost from words of the Zero Period (learned by
adventures (55 BC) and the Roman Conquest				continental Germanic
(43-449 AD), but almost none				tribes), who found it hard to decline even
of these1 survived the Teutonic and Norman				shortened words from Vulgar
invasions. In fact, most				Latin in their heavily-inflected Old High and Low
Celtic words in Modern English either were				Germans.Latin's Impact on English GrammarLatin's
borrowed recently (slogan,				contribution to modern English has not been based
shillelagh) or continued as place names (Kent,				solely on
Devon, Cumberland). The				derivatives. The very ideas of grammar also
most interesting Latin-Celtic-Old English path is				came from the artificial
that of -chester,				structure of Classical Latin (the Latin used for
with its variants -cester and -caster, as found in				poetry, oratory, and
Manchester,				by the upper classes). Early English was in no
Gloucester, and Lancaster. In Celtic, it is ceaster,				way an artificial or
from the Latin				learned language, and had no grammar, no rules,
castra (encampment).The Second PeriodThis				nothing but
period, dating from Augustine's mission of 597, is				conflicting precedent15 in everything: spelling,
divided				word order,
into two main sub-periods, the Early and the				declension, and conjugation.In this structural
Benedictine. The Early				vacuum, those who wanted order were forced to
Second Period includes words taken by the				create it, which they did by imposing classical
English to describe their				grammar on the
new religion (mass, pope; from the Old English				language16. These early grammarians are the
maesse, papa; and the				source of the stigma on
Latin missa, papa), but also household words				ending a phrase with a preposition, of the choice
(cap, plant; from the Old				we have today
English caeppa, plante; and the Latin cappa,				between who/which (identified with the Latin qui)
planta) and those				and that as a
relating to education (Latin and school; from the				relative pronoun17, and with the absolute
Old English scol;				participle, whose first use
and the Latin Latinus, schola). The amount and				in English was direct translation from the Latin.
miscellany of the				While the last is a
borrowings show the extent of Christianity's				benefit, the first two lead to unnaturally worded
immediate impact on				phrases, and have no
seventh-century Britain. In this part of the				justification other than classical grammar.Latin's
Second Period, direct				Overall ImpactLatin is so large a part of English
translation of Latin terms is characteristic. Thus,				that, even if we wanted to, we
the Late Latin				could not purge ourselves of even one tenth of
trinitas (three) is the Old English prines (literally,				our words derived from
three-ness),				it. Even our grammar, which has been influenced
and the Late Latin resurrectio (resurrection) is				less than our
the Old English				vocabulary, would be amazingly different without
aerist, from arisan (to arise).The Third PeriodThe				its Latin base. But,
Third Period begins in 1066 with William the				is all that we have received from Latin
Conqueror. With the				useful?Our grammar has been turned on its head
Norman invasion came their language, Norman				by classical scholars, and our
French, which was related				vocabulary does not need the amount of words
more closely to Latin than was English. Because				that it has. If one idea
of this closeness,				has just one word derived from each language
words adopted from French (usually of a more				contributing the most to
colliquial character) are				Modern English (Greek, Latin, Saxon (Germanic),
considered along with those drawn from Latin				and Norman French), we
itself (often more				would still have useless synonyms.
learned, and first found in written language). The

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Latin and Its Influence on English Language

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