| The year is 2021. It is two decades after the 9 | | | | 100 electrodes was implanted into his wrist to |
| 11 attacks. A group of terrorists are seated at an | | | | enable scientists to interpret nerve signals arising |
| outdoor café discussing their plans. A cat | | | | from movement and sensation with the hope of |
| observes from about 5 meters away. Images are | | | | providing breakthroughs for the paralyzed. |
| transmitted from its brain providing real-time | | | | Cybernetic technology is, at a minimum, from a |
| information. At the same time, a tiny beetle goes | | | | medical standpoint, being directed at several areas. |
| unnoticed as it takes position underneath the table. | | | | A summary of progress and future aspirations |
| It is outfitted with a nano-listening device that | | | | for these areas is listed below: |
| transmits the content of the terrorists' discussion | | | | Sight: |
| also in real-time. A few minutes later, a couple of | | | | · In February 2007 Gingersnap, a |
| pigeons land nearby and begin pecking for crumbs. | | | | 4-year-old Abyssinian cat suffering from a |
| As they do so, they inch closer to the table. A | | | | condition similar to retinitis pigmentosa (an |
| few minutes later, each pigeon lifts a wing | | | | incurable genetic disease that attacks the eye's |
| dispensing a poisoned dart. Before the terrorists | | | | photoreceptor cells leading to blindness) was |
| can react, each is dead. Elsewhere in the world, a | | | | implanted with 2-millimeter-wide artificial silicon |
| soldier who lost his arms and legs in combat, | | | | retina (ASR) chips (each covered by 5,000 |
| through sheer perseverance and utilization of | | | | microphotodiodes that react to light. When these |
| bionic limbs wins a triathlon. In the process, he | | | | microphotodiodes react, electric signals are sent |
| outperforms mere mortals with natural limbs. | | | | through the eye's optic nerve to the brain allowing |
| Sound far-fetched? Not anymore! Cyborgs - part | | | | it to detect light impulses) manufactured by |
| machine, part biological organism that can be used | | | | Optobionics to preserve her vision. As technology |
| for scientific, medical, military/intelligence/law | | | | improves, additional data will likely be able to be |
| enforcement purposes, have become a reality | | | | transmitted enabling the brain to decipher |
| thanks to scientific and technological advances | | | | complete images. |
| presenting both promise (e.g. the possibility of | | | | · Retinal implants are currently in use to |
| significant medical breakthroughs to restore and | | | | combat macular degeneration (a disorder that |
| enhance quality of life and to extend life itself) and | | | | results in loss of vision in the macula located at |
| trepidation (e.g. as machine and organism merge, | | | | the center of the eye, which makes it difficult to |
| the delineating boundary of life becomes blurred | | | | see fine details). |
| impacting associated rights while the possibility of | | | | · Contact lenses called "I, Contact" that |
| controlling human thought and action becomes | | | | interface with a computer mouse, in which eyeball |
| frighteningly real). | | | | movement controls cursor movement, have been |
| The term "cyborg" was coined by NASA | | | | developed to assist the disabled. |
| scientists Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline in 1960 | | | | · Researchers at the University of |
| when discussing the hypothetical advantages of | | | | Washington, having developed contact lenses with |
| human-machines in space. Although such | | | | electronic circuits and red-LEDs, are working on |
| cybernetic organisms became the realm of | | | | lenses (ultimately to be powered by human neural |
| science fiction, efforts to create real-life cyborgs | | | | electrical activity) that could one day provide tele |
| began even before the term was conceived and | | | | microscopic vision, enable people to view the |
| continue to this day. | | | | infrared portion of the light spectrum, take |
| · In 1950 José Delgado of Yale | | | | pictures, make videos, and even superimpose |
| University inserted electrodes onto a bull's brain to | | | | images accessed from the Internet via WiFi. |
| gain crude control over its movements. He | | | | Hearing: |
| successfully demonstrated this control in | | | | · More than 100,000 profoundly deaf |
| Córdoba, Spain in 1963 when he stood in | | | | people currently use a bionic ear (cochlear |
| the path of a charging cyborg bull and steered it | | | | implants that rely on a direct neural connection) |
| away at the last moment. | | | | that stimulates hearing nerves in the inner ear to |
| · The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) | | | | understand speech and other sounds. Research is |
| attempted to create its own cyborg in 1961 in | | | | currently focused on enabling cochlear implant |
| Operation Acoustic Kitty, in which a cat was cut | | | | users to differentiate between speech and other |
| open and fitted with an array of wires (one to | | | | background sounds. |
| override feelings such as hunger) and a listening | | | | Mind-Controlled Mobility: |
| device that utilized its tail as an antenna. The | | | | · Although research to provide mobility to |
| project was disbanded as a failure in 1967 when | | | | and the ability for quadriplegics (that make up |
| the cat on its first mission (to eavesdrop on the | | | | about 1.25 million of the world's population) to |
| Soviet compound in Washington, D.C.) was killed | | | | operate major appliances such as a television and |
| by a moving taxi sending more than five years of | | | | computer is still in its infancy, significant progress |
| intensive training and $15 million down the drain. | | | | is being made.o In 2008 a monkey successfully |
| Afterwards, cyborg research remained dormant | | | | moved a robotic arm via neural implants. In |
| until the late 1980s, picking up steam a decade | | | | another instance, a rhesus monkey (Idoya) |
| later. By this time, science and technology had | | | | located in North Carolina operated a robot in Japan |
| advanced significantly, especially with the | | | | through thought alone as part of the |
| miniaturization of devices and components. | | | | Computational Brain Project led by neuroscientist |
| As cybernetic technology is further developed and | | | | Miguel A.L. Nicolelis with researchers at Duke |
| refined, the seamless synthesis of organic and | | | | University Medical Center and Japan Science and |
| artificial parts is likely to become widespread | | | | Technology Agency.o Researchers at Osaka |
| requiring modification of basic definitions of life and | | | | University in Japan are currently working with four |
| its associated rights, creation of applicable | | | | human test subjects, each of whom has had an |
| international protocols and an adjustment in | | | | electrode sheet placed directly on their brain so |
| thought perceptions. Cybernetic technology is | | | | that they can determine the brain wave activity |
| likely to have three major applications: | | | | associated with arm, elbow, and finger movement |
| Military/Intelligence/Law Enforcement: | | | | to discern intended activity to allow |
| Early efforts involving animal experiments were | | | | mind-controlled movement of future prosthetics. |
| primarily aimed towards military/intelligence/law | | | | Currently the researchers can determine intended |
| enforcement applications. A few of the notable | | | | activity with greater than 80% activity.o At the |
| experiments are listed below: | | | | same time, European scientists have created a |
| · Per an article by Bill Christensen of (Jack | | | | non-intrusive brain-computer interface (BCI) |
| Into A Cat's Brain) scientists successfully | | | | (though still in the research and development |
| produced a video of a recognizable moving scene | | | | stage), that utilizes human brain activity and |
| as observed through a cat's eyes in 1999. This | | | | imbedded artificial intelligence to operate devices |
| was accomplished through the use of electrodes | | | | (e.g. computers, wheelchairs, artificial limbs). BCIs |
| that simultaneously recorded and catalogued | | | | will eventually afford quadriplegics mobility and |
| responses in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) | | | | skills once unimaginable. |
| and 177 selected brain cells of a sharp-eyed cat. | | | | Cybernetic Limbs: |
| Though the images were not as sharp as those | | | | · Synthetic parts are routinely used for |
| seen by human eyes and recorded by | | | | hip and knee replacements. With regard to the |
| camcorders, technology continues to improve. In | | | | latter, a newly developed knee (presently under |
| the near future adjustments will likely enhance | | | | limited release in the United States and the |
| clarity and quality of feline vision and cats selected | | | | Netherlands) that synchronizes motion with a |
| for surveillance operations may even have their | | | | user's natural leg is so effective that its recipients |
| natural eyes replaced with cybernetic devices | | | | can easily get up, climb stairs and even engage in |
| equipped with miniature cameras (a moral | | | | extreme sports. |
| concern). | | | | · An arm, dubbed the "Luke Arm" after |
| · In 2002, a team led by John Chapin at | | | | Luke Skywalker's character in Star Wars, was |
| the State University of New York (SUNY) | | | | developed in which movement can be controlled |
| created cyborg rats by implanting electrodes on | | | | by nerves, muscles, and Bluetooth®-activated |
| their brains. They were then trained to move in | | | | shoe pads enabling armless users to eat, pick up |
| accordance to impulses delivered via the | | | | tiny objects and utilize their prosthetic arms and |
| electrodes and to seek specific scents (e.g. | | | | hands in the same way people use natural arms |
| human, explosives, exploding dye, etc.). When | | | | and hands. |
| tested, each cyborg rat was fitted with a tiny | | | | · An Australian woman was fitted in 2009 |
| camera to provide indication of mission success. | | | | with the world's first fully functioning artificial finger |
| The rats were then successfully guided to a | | | | that can curl and grip like a natural finger through |
| specific location via radio-controlled impulses. | | | | utilization of nerve endings. |
| Afterwards, the implants were powered down | | | | · Research is ongoing to find a way to |
| and as soon as the rats realized they were free | | | | graft metal to bone so that skin can be grown |
| of their control, they went into a sniffing mode | | | | around it creating combination synthetic/biological |
| and successfully identified the source of a target | | | | parts. |
| odor. The process took only a few minutes and | | | | · Efforts are also being made to give |
| was successfully duplicated in additional tests. | | | | prosthetic devices artificial intelligence in which |
| · In 2005, a team of scientists led by Su | | | | micro-implants into muscles and nerves will enable |
| Xuecheng at the Shandong University of Science | | | | users to move their new limbs solely by thought |
| and Technology in Qingdao, China, successfully | | | | (consistent with human control of natural limbs). |
| controlled pigeon flight (direction and ascent | | | | Cardiac Treatment: |
| descent) via wireless signal transmitted to | | | | · Ventricular Assist Devices (VAD) are |
| electrodes implanted onto their brains from a | | | | currently in use by patients who although they |
| laptop computer. Similarly, in 2006, Jelle Atema of | | | | have some heart function, require artificial |
| Boston University controlled directional movement | | | | assistance to sustain their lives. |
| of a spring dogfish (a small type of shark) via a | | | | · Artificial hearts have been developed |
| neural implant that stimulated the left or right | | | | with the CardioWest temporary Total Artificial |
| olfactory area of its brain. | | | | Heart (TAH-t) and AbioCor Replacement Heart |
| In light of such success, the U.S. Department of | | | | having been approved for human use by the |
| Defense (DoD) and U.S. Defense Advanced | | | | Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, |
| Projects Agency (DARPA), the latter which has | | | | research and development is ongoing for a |
| been disbanded, have also made significant | | | | permanent device. Presently artificial hearts have |
| progress. The latest phase of the DoD's efforts - | | | | been generally used on a temporary basis (until a |
| the development of Hybrid Insect Micro-Electro | | | | donor heart could be found) with a few |
| Mechanical Systems (HI-MEMS) - is focused on | | | | exceptions. In one such exception, a patient |
| "small" (to create inconspicuous cyborgs) and | | | | survived 512 days with an AbioCor device. |
| reliance on insect flight, which is unmatched with | | | | Alzheimer's/Parkinson's Disease and Epilepsy: |
| regard to agility. Experiments have been | | | | · Per the BBC (13 August 2008) |
| conducted on beetles, flies and moths. | | | | researchers (in 2008) at the University of |
| Since 2008 several milestones have been | | | | Reading, in Reading, UK created a multi-electrode |
| accomplished: | | | | array consisting of about 300,000 neurons |
| · Tobacco hornworms fitted with | | | | extracted from a rat fetus to control robotic |
| miniature electronic implants survived and grew | | | | movement. The cells, kept separate from the |
| into adult Manduca moths with no complications. | | | | robot in a temperature-controlled container (filled |
| X-rays unveiled at the 2008 Micro-Electro | | | | with a pink broth solution) fitted with electrodes |
| Mechanical Systems (MEMS) conference held in | | | | communicated via Bluetooth® short-wave |
| Tucson, Arizona showed good tissue growth | | | | radio. The objective is to gain a better |
| around probes that had been implanted where | | | | understanding of neurons with the hope of |
| abdominal segments would have grown during the | | | | discovering effective treatments for Alzheimers's, |
| larval stage after a portion of their thorax was | | | | Parkinson's Disease (both debilitating neurological |
| removed to make room for the implants. | | | | disorders; Alzheimer's adversely impacts memory |
| Hookworms fitted with cybernetic devices | | | | while Parkinson's disease is characterized by |
| showed no signs of complications, adverse | | | | muscle rigidity, tremors, slowed physical |
| impairments or rejection during metamorphosis. | | | | movement, and impaired speech and involuntary |
| · A video, created at the Boyce | | | | functions), and epilepsy (a common neurological |
| Thompson Institute in Ithaca, New York | | | | disorder characterized by repeated, spontaneous |
| documenting successful control of moth flight was | | | | seizures). |
| also shown during the 2008 MEMS conference. | | | | Robotics/Computer Technology: |
| Moth movement was controlled by a series of | | | | Future robots and computers are likely to utilize |
| 5-volt shocks that stimulated their wing muscles | | | | living and non-living components alike. Potentially, |
| delivered via tethered wires. Uniform stimuli | | | | this could be extremely problematic if such |
| determined wing-speed resulting in ascent/descent | | | | technology is applied in a malevolent or unethical |
| while stimuli applied to wing muscles on one side | | | | way since it could lead to a new generation of |
| or the other determined direction. | | | | slaves. Accordingly, international protocols (including |
| · A similar process used by a team of | | | | those pertaining to the ethical treatment of |
| researchers led by Michel Maharbiz of the | | | | animals) and other safeguards will be required to |
| University of California (UNC) Berkeley succeeded | | | | address these issues as cybernetic technology |
| with Green June Beetles. Negative impulses from | | | | evolves. |
| neural implants (transmitted via tethered wires) | | | | In the meantime, a team of scientists led by |
| activated the beetles' wings resulting in ascent; | | | | Charles Higgins of the University of Arizona |
| positive impulses halted their wing movement | | | | Tucson is seeking to transform insects into |
| resulting in descent. Lift and descent were | | | | "high-level sensory robotic controllers [since] |
| controlled by rapid switching between the two | | | | artificial vision (which is costly) [currently] can't |
| types of impulses. At the same time, directional | | | | beat living systems, which are honed to recognize |
| control of beetle flight was achieved in two ways | | | | objects or detect motion"[1] |
| - via a mounted LED in front of their eyes and by | | | | At the same time, scientists at IBM's Almaden |
| impulses to either its left or right basilar muscle. | | | | Research Center and the California Institute of |
| · The same UNC Berkeley team unveiled | | | | Technology are in the process of developing a |
| a wireless system that successfully controlled | | | | new generation of microprocessors that utilize |
| Rhinoceros Beetle flight during the 2009 MEMS | | | | living DNA with the objective of creating smaller, |
| conference held in Sorrento, Italy. | | | | faster, and cheaper devices. |
| The present objective of the DoD funded | | | | Conclusion: |
| research is to create insect cyborgs that can be | | | | Cyborgs, once relegated to science fiction have |
| remotely controlled from at least 100 meters | | | | become scientific reality providing vast military |
| away, directed to land within a maximum of 5 | | | | intelligence/law enforcement, medical, and |
| meters from a target subject, and remain there | | | | technological prospects. If cybernetic technology is |
| until directed to leave. When this is successfully | | | | used benevolently and ethically where human |
| mastered (overcoming barriers such as high | | | | thought remains the primary driver in lieu of |
| winds), miniature cameras can be implanted for | | | | imposed mind-control, it will open new windows of |
| surveillance, sensors to detect biological, chemical, | | | | opportunity - providing greater freedom and |
| or radiological agents, and tiny weapons (utilizing | | | | improved standards of life, to quadriplegics |
| potent poisons and hallucinogenic drugs) to attack | | | | trapped in their own bodies, to the blind |
| potential targets. | | | | imprisoned in a world of darkness, to the deaf |
| Medical: | | | | confined in a prison of silence, and to people who |
| The second major application of cybernetic | | | | with age or injury, will need seamless synthetic |
| research is to develop technology to medically | | | | replacement parts for those worn down or |
| restore or enhance human capabilities (e.g. vision - | | | | destroyed. It will also expand human capabilities |
| limited with regard to distance, viewing and small | | | | with regard to speed, sight, communication, and |
| objects, etc.; communication - limited to speech | | | | endurance. Finally, when such technology gains |
| and writing). | | | | widespread acceptance and use, it is likely that |
| In 2002, Kevin Warwick, a leading expert on | | | | the majority of the human race will be cyborg, |
| cybernetic technology became the world's first | | | | though not in the way envisioned by science |
| human cyborg (documented in I, Cyborg, | | | | fiction. |
| University of Illinois Press, Chicago, IL, 2004) in an | | | | _________ |
| effort to facilitate research aimed at these | | | | [1] The cyborg animal spies hatching in the lab. |
| objectives. A 3-millimeter-wide silicon square with | | | | New Scientist. 6 March 2008. |